
Alpha Esthetics
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Date de création novembre 20, 1955
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Company Description
Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2025), p
Information technology (IT) is a set of associated fields that include computer systems, software application, programming languages, information and details processing, and storage. [1] IT forms part of details and interactions technology (ICT). [2] An info technology system (IT system) is usually a details system, an interactions system, or, more particularly speaking, a computer system – consisting of all hardware, software application, and peripheral devices – operated by a limited group of IT users, and an IT job typically describes the commissioning and application of an IT system. [3] IT systems play an essential function in facilitating efficient data management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes across numerous markets. Successful IT projects require meticulous preparation and ongoing maintenance to guarantee optimum performance and alignment with organizational objectives. [4]
Although humans have actually been keeping, retrieving, controling, analysing and interacting details because the earliest writing systems were established, [5] the term infotech in its modern sense initially appeared in a 1958 short article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that « the new innovation does not yet have a single recognized name. We will call it infotech (IT). » [6] Their meaning includes 3 categories: techniques for processing, the application of analytical and mathematical techniques to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order analyzing computer system programs. [6]
The term is typically used as a synonym for computer systems and computer system networks, however it also encompasses other info distribution technologies such as tv and telephones. Several services or products within an economy are connected with info innovation, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce. [7] [a]
Based on the storage and processing innovations utilized, it is possible to distinguish four distinct stages of IT advancement: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present). [5]
Information technology is a branch of computer technology, specified as the study of procedures, structures, and the processing of numerous kinds of information. As this field continues to evolve worldwide, its priority and value have grown, leading to the intro of computer science-related courses in K-12 education.
Ideas of computer science were first discussed before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had talked about and began thinking about computer system circuits and numerical computations. As time went on, the field of infotech and computer technology ended up being more intricate and had the ability to manage the processing of more data. Scholarly articles began to be released from various organizations. [9]
During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered a few of the major pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their advancements, the majority of their efforts were focused on designing the very first digital computer system. In addition to that, topics such as expert system began to be raised as Turing was beginning to question such technology of the time duration. [10]
Devices have been used to help computation for countless years, most likely at first in the form of a tally stick. [11] The Antikythera system, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is normally considered the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known tailored system. [12] Comparable tailored gadgets did not emerge in Europe up until the 16th century, and it was not up until 1645 that the very first mechanical calculator capable of carrying out the 4 basic arithmetical operations was developed. [13]
Electronic computers, utilizing either relays or valves, started to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, finished in 1941, was the world’s first programmable computer, and by modern-day standards among the first machines that could be considered a total computing device. During the Second World War, Colossus established the first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being created to perform only a single task. It also did not have the ability to store its program in memory; shows was carried out using plugs and switches to change the internal circuitry. [14] The first recognizably contemporary electronic digital stored-program computer system was the Manchester Baby, which ran its very first program on 21 June 1948. [15]
The advancement of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a brand-new generation of computers to be created with greatly lowered power consumption. The very first commercially available stored-program computer system, the Ferranti Mark I, included 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, taken in only 150 watts in its final version. [16]
Several other developments in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955, [17] the very first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957, [18] the MOSFET presentation by a Bell Labs group. [19] [20] [21] [22] the planar process by Jean Hoerni in 1959, [23] [24] [25] and the microprocessor developed by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These crucial inventions led to the advancement of the individual computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the introduction of info and interactions technology (ICT). [26]
By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term details technology had been redefined as « The development of cable television was made possible by the merging of telecommunications and computing innovation (… typically known in Britain as information innovation). » We then start to see the appearance of the term in 1990 consisted of within files for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). [27]
Innovations in innovation have currently changed the world by the twenty-first century as people were able to gain access to different online services. This has changed the labor force dramatically as thirty percent of U.S. workers were already in professions in this profession. 136.9 million people were personally linked to the Internet, which was comparable to 51 million homes. [28] Together with the Internet, new kinds of innovation were likewise being introduced throughout the globe, which has enhanced effectiveness and made things easier around the world.
Together with technology transforming society, countless procedures might be done in seconds. Innovations in interaction were also crucial as individuals began to count on the computer system to interact through telephone lines and cable. The introduction of the e-mail was thought about innovative as « business in one part of the world could communicate by e-mail with providers and buyers in another part of the world … » [29]
Not only personally, computer systems and innovation have likewise reinvented the marketing industry, resulting in more purchasers of their products. In 2002, Americans exceeded $28 billion in items just online alone while e-commerce a decade later resulted in $289 billion in sales. [29] And as computers are quickly ending up being more sophisticated every day, they are ending up being more used as people are ending up being more reliant on them throughout the twenty-first century.
Data processing
Storage
Early electronic computer systems such as Colossus utilized punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, an innovation now obsolete. [30] Electronic information storage, which is used in modern-day computers, dates from World War II, when a type of delay-line memory was established to get rid of the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line. [31] The very first random-access digital storage gadget was the Williams tube, which was based on a basic cathode ray tube. [32] However, the details saved in it and delay-line memory was unstable in the truth that it needed to be continuously revitalized, and hence was lost when power was eliminated. The earliest kind of non-volatile computer system storage was the magnetic drum, created in 1932 [33] and utilized in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world’s very first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer system. [34]
IBM introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. [35]:6 Most digital data today is still saved magnetically on difficult disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. [36]:4 -5 Until 2002 most info was stored on analog devices, however that year digital storage capability went beyond analog for the very first time. As of 2007 [upgrade], almost 94% of the information stored worldwide was held digitally: [37] 52% on difficult disks, 28% on optical gadgets, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has actually been approximated that the around the world capacity to keep info on electronic gadgets grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, [38] doubling approximately every 3 years. [39]
Databases
Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to resolve the issue of keeping and retrieving big quantities of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM’s Information Management System (IMS), [40] which is still commonly released more than 50 years later on. [41] IMS stores information hierarchically, [40] however in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based upon set theory and predicate logic and the familiar principles of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the very first commercially offered relational database management system (RDBMS) was launched by Oracle. [42]
All DMS include components, they allow the information they store to be accessed at the same time by many users while maintaining its integrity. [43] All databases are typical in one point that the structure of the data they include is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema. [40]
Over the last few years, the extensible markup language (XML) has actually ended up being a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be kept in normal file systems, it is typically held in relational databases to take benefit of their « robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort. » [44] As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML’s text-based structure offers the benefit of being both machine- and human-readable. [45]
Transmission
Data transmission has 3 elements: transmission, propagation, and reception. [46] It can be broadly classified as broadcasting, in which information is sent unidirectionally downstream, or telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels. [38]
XML has been significantly employed as a way of data interchange because the early 2000s, [47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those included in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, [45] explaining « data-in-transit instead of … data-at-rest ». [47]
Manipulation
Hilbert and Lopez identify the rapid speed of technological change (a type of Moore’s law): devices’ application-specific capability to compute details per capita roughly doubled every 14 months in between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world’s general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months throughout the same twenty years; the international telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world’s storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast information has actually doubled every 12.3 years. [38]
Massive quantities of information are stored around the world every day, however unless it can be examined and presented effectively it basically lives in what have actually been called data tombs: « data archives that are hardly ever gone to ». [48] To attend to that issue, the field of information mining – « the procedure of finding interesting patterns and knowledge from big quantities of data » [49] – emerged in the late 1980s. [50]
The technology and services it provides for sending out and getting electronic messages (called « letters » or « electronic letters ») over a distributed (consisting of global) computer system network. In regards to the composition of components and the principle of operation, electronic mail virtually duplicates the system of routine (paper) mail, obtaining both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, shipment, and others) and particular functions – ease of use, message transmission hold-ups, sufficient reliability and at the exact same time no assurance of delivery. The benefits of e-mail are: quickly perceived and remembered by a person addresses of the kind user_name@domain_name (for instance, somebody@example.com); the capability to transfer both plain text and formatted, as well as approximate files; self-reliance of servers (in the basic case, they deal with each other straight); adequately high dependability of message shipment; ease of use by humans and programs.
Disadvantages of email: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (huge advertising and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of ensured shipment of a particular letter; possible hold-ups in message shipment (up to several days); limitations on the size of one message and on the overall size of messages in the mailbox (individual for users).
Search system
A software application and hardware complex with a web interface that supplies the ability to search for information on the Internet. A search engine typically suggests a website that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of an online search engine is a search engine (online search engine) – a set of programs that provides the performance of an online search engine and is typically a trade secret of the online search engine developer company. Most online search engine look for information on Internet sites, but there are likewise systems that can search for files on FTP servers, products in online shops, and details on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is among the priorities of the contemporary Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work of search engines).
Commercial results
Companies in the information technology field are typically talked about as a group as the « tech sector » or the « tech market. » [51] [52] [53] These titles can be misinforming at times and ought to not be mistaken for « tech companies; » which are generally big scale, for-profit corporations that sell customer technology and software application. It is also worth keeping in mind that from an organization perspective, Information technology departments are a « cost center » most of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which incurs expenditures, or « costs », within a business instead of generating profits or revenue streams. Modern companies rely heavily on innovation for their everyday operations, so the expenses entrusted to cover innovation that helps with service in a more effective way are generally viewed as « simply the cost of doing organization. » IT departments are assigned funds by senior leadership and must attempt to achieve the preferred deliverables while remaining within that spending plan. Government and the economic sector may have different financing mechanisms, but the concepts are more-or-less the same. This is a typically ignored reason for the fast interest in automation and artificial intelligence, however the consistent pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some small operations in large companies.
Many business now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their organizations. Companies have likewise looked for to incorporate IT with company results and decision-making through a BizOps or service operations department. [54]
In a service context, the Infotech Association of America has actually specified infotech as « the research study, style, advancement, application, application, support, or management of computer-based info systems ». [55] [page required] The duties of those operating in the field consist of network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of a company’s innovation life process, by which software and hardware are preserved, upgraded, and changed.
Information services
Information services is a term rather loosely used to a variety of IT-related services provided by business companies, [56] [57] [58] as well as data brokers.
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U.S. Employment distribution of computer systems style and associated services, 2011 [59]
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U.S. Employment in the computer system systems and style associated services industry, in thousands, 1990-2011 [59]
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U.S. Occupational growth and wages in computer system systems style and associated services, 2010-2020 [59]
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U.S. projected percent modification in employment in chosen professions in computer systems style and associated services, 2010-2020 [59]
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U.S. projected typical yearly percent change in output and work in picked markets, 2010-2020 [59]
Ethics
The field of info ethics was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. [60]:9 A few of the ethical problems associated with making use of infotech include: [61]:20 -21
– Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the approval of the copyright holders.
– Employers monitoring their workers’ emails and other Internet usage.
Unsolicited e-mails.
Hackers accessing online databases.
– Web websites installing cookies or spyware to monitor a user’s online activities, which may be utilized by information brokers.
IT jobs
Research suggests that IT tasks in service and public administration can easily become significant in scale. Work carried out by McKinsey in partnership with the University of Oxford suggested that half of all massive IT jobs (those with preliminary expense price quotes of $15 million or more) often stopped working to preserve costs within their initial spending plans or to complete on time. [62]
Information and communications innovation (ICT).
IT facilities.
Outline of details technology.
Knowledge society.
Notes
^ On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: « In its original application ‘details technology’ was proper to explain the merging of innovations with application in the large field of information storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This helpful conceptual term has since been transformed to what claims to be of terrific usage, however without the reinforcement of definition … the term IT does not have substance when used to the name of any function, discipline, or position. » [8] References
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Further reading
Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994 ), Information Technology and the Corporation of the 1990s, Oxford University Press.
– Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011 ). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Infotech: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280.
Gleick, James (2011 ). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York City: Pantheon Books.
Price, Wilson T. (1981 ), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions, ISBN 978-4-8337-0012-2.
– Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999 ). Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Course Technology.
– Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986 ). Infotech – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.